Card Stacking: The Art of Selective Truth
Author’s General Introduction
Propaganda is the manipulation of masses through media. In this series, we dive deep into the mechanisms of influence to understand how our perception is shaped and how we can protect ourselves from it. Each post examines a specific technique, its functionality, and practical ways to expose it.
Propaganda Technique
Card Stacking, also known as “Stacking the Deck” or “Cherry Picking,” is one of the most sophisticated propaganda techniques in the modern media landscape. The term originates from card games and describes shuffling the cards to one’s own advantage. In the media world, Card Stacking means the targeted selection and presentation of only those facts, statistics, quotes, or events that support a particular viewpoint, while contradictory or contextualizing information is systematically omitted.
The insidious aspect of this technique is that all presented information can be factually correct. The manipulation lies not in falsifying individual facts, but in selective compilation and deliberate omission of important contextual information. Card Stacking exploits the human tendency to draw conclusions from available information without questioning what information might be missing. This technique is particularly effective because it creates the appearance of objectivity and factual accuracy.
The psychological mechanisms of Card Stacking are based on the availability heuristic principle: People evaluate the probability or importance of events based on information that is easily available to them. When media systematically illuminate only certain aspects of a topic, audiences develop a distorted picture of reality. This technique is particularly effective with complex topics where the audience lacks the time or expertise to conduct comprehensive research themselves.
Card Stacking manifests in various forms: selective statistics presentation, one-sided expert selection, highlighting certain studies while ignoring others, or focusing on specific time periods that show a desired development. To recognize this technique, it’s important to look for missing information, consult alternative sources, and ask: “What isn’t being said here?” Critical media literacy requires the ability to see the big picture and consciously search for the “other cards in the deck.”
Application Examples
The following examples are deliberately fictional to illustrate the mechanisms without discrediting real persons or events:
Example 1 – Economic Statistics: A media report on the economic situation presents exclusively positive labor market data from the last three months, while long-term development, regional differences, and the quality of new jobs are concealed. At the same time, only experts who give optimistic forecasts are quoted, while critical voices or warnings about structural problems are completely ignored.
Example 2 – Health Reporting: In reporting on a new medication, only studies showing positive results are mentioned, while studies with negative or mixed results are not mentioned. Side effects are only superficially addressed, and long-term studies that are still pending are not discussed. Patient reports are selectively chosen to present only success stories.
Example 3 – Political Reporting: Coverage of a fictional politician focuses exclusively on their successes and positive statements, while controversies, failed projects, or critical voices from their own party are systematically ignored. Polls are only cited when they show favorable results, and the historical context of their political decisions is omitted.
Example 4 – Environmental Topics: A report on climate change presents exclusively data supporting a particular position, while scientific uncertainties, dissenting studies, or complex interactions are not mentioned. Only scientists with a certain opinion are heard, while the breadth of scientific discussion is concealed.
Example 5 – Technology Reporting: When introducing new technology, only advantages and success stories are highlighted, while risks, ethical concerns, privacy issues, or failed implementations are concealed. Critical experts are not quoted, and possible negative societal impacts remain unmentioned.
Further Reading
Hardinghaus, Christian: “War Propaganda and Media Manipulation: What You Should Know to Avoid Being Deceived” (German Edition. English Edition coming soon)
Further Information
- Miller, Clyde R. (1939): The Process of Persuasion. Crown Publishers. (First description of the Card Stacking technique)
- Pratkanis, Anthony & Aronson, Elliot (2001): Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion. W. H. Freeman and Company.
- Klayman, Joshua & Ha, Young-Won (1987): Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing. Psychological Review, 94(2), 211-228.
- Nickerson, Raymond S. (1998): Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220.
- Gilovich, Thomas (1991): How We Know What Isn’t So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life. Free Press.
- Mercier, Hugo & Sperber, Dan (2017): The Enigma of Reason. Harvard University Press.
